In Israel, as elsewhere in the world, rapid technological development,
improvement in standards of living and increased population density have
brought in their wake pollutant emissions from both stationary and mobile
sources. Israel's specific conditions -- concentration of population and
industry in the coastal area, small land area, variety of natural assets,
and singular geological, topographical and climatic features -- aggravate
the problems of air pollution.
The main sources of air pollution in Israel are energy production,
transportation and industry. Since these are largely concentrated in the
coastal plain, the highest levels of pollution have been detected in this
area. Natural conditions for pollution dispersion in the atmosphere of the
coastal area are not favorable and, until recently, relatively high
concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SO2), emitted for the most part by power
plants and oil refineries, have been recorded in the Ashdod and Haifa Bay
areas. Intense industrial activity in the Haifa Bay, coupled with
difficult atmospheric dispersion conditions caused by the influence of the
Mediterranean Sea and the complex topography of Mount Carmel, make this
area one of the most problematic in terms of air pollution.
The rapid emergence of industrial plants in the vicinity of urban centers
has exacerbated air pollution problems throughout Israel. Pollution
sources include cement plants, quarries, chemical and petrochemical plants
and several other industries. Dense vehicular traffic is also a major
contributor to air pollution, causing high nitrogen oxide (NOx)
concentrations, especially in the heavily populated urban centers of Tel
Aviv, Jerusalem and Haifa. The problem is compounded by the operation of
diesel-powered buses and trucks. Increased motorization has had a major
impact on the deterioration of air quality, especially in the coastal
area.
Principles of Air Resources Management
Israel's air quality policy is based on the following elements: prevention
of air pollution through the integration of environmental considerations
and physical planning; monitoring and intermittent control systems;
legislation and enforcement including ambient and emission standards;
improvement of fuel quality; research; international cooperation;
individual treatment of pollution sources; and reduction of pollutant
emissions from motor vehicles.
Wherever possible, efforts are concentrated on limiting air pollution
through rational physical planning. The Planning and Building Law, through
its Environmental Impact Statement Regulations of 1982, serves an
important function in air quality preservation, by restricting emissions
of air pollutants from planned installations, as dictated by emission
standards based on Best Available Technology (BAT). Preparation of an
environmental impact statement (EIS) Is required for any of the following
types of projects, if significant environmental impact is expected:
electric power plants, hazardous waste disposal sites, mines, quarries,
and industrial plants located outside designated industrial areas if they
are deemed likely to cause a significant impact on the environment beyond
the locality. To date, because of the lack of statutory regulations
dealing with emission standards, personal decrees issued in accordance
with the Abatement of Nuisances Law, have constituted one of the most
important legal instruments in Israel for controlling air pollution from
existing stationary sources. These administrative directives include
specific stipulations to polluters on how to prevent air pollution, and
have been issued to some twenty industrial plants including some of
Israel's older power plants, crude oil refineries, cement plants,
phosphate loading terminals, chemical and petrochemical plants, quarries,
and other factories. Similar environmental limits on air pollution are
also introduced into the business licenses of problematic plants, under
the Licensing of Businesses Law.
Israel's New Air Resources Management Program
Despite major investments in air pollution prevention in past years
(especially in the reduction of sulfur dioxide emissions), the state of
air pollution in Israel remains unsatisfactory. In order to bring about
significant improvements in air pollution abatement and prevention, a
comprehensive new program for the management of air resources was
formulated in 1994. In the wake of the program, scales of priority are
already changing. Emphasis is being shifted from ambient standards to
emission standards; increased attention is directed at technological
solutions to pollutant emissions from stationary sources; concentration is
focusing on the reduction of vehicular emissions; new efforts are being
invested in controlling photochemical smog; steps are being taken to
establish a nationwide monitoring network; and preparations for a
comprehensive Clean Air Act designed to provide Israel with the statutory
tools necessary to manage its air quality resources in the best manner
possible, have been initiated.
Air Quality Monitoring
Availability of nationwide accurate data on air quality is a prerequisite
for the formulation of a comprehensive national air quality management
program. Air quality monitoring in Israel started in the beginning of the
1970s in the Tel Aviv and Ashdod areas, when the major emphasis was on
pollutants emitted by the Reading and the Eshkol power plants. While 63
monitoring stations currently operate in Israel, nearly all are situated
in the environs of power plants and major industrial areas. Monitoring is
inadequate or non-existent in the industrial areas of Tel Aviv and
Beersheba, while monitoring of vehicular pollutants in city centers and
densely populated areas is sporadic at best. Moreover, under unfavorable
meteorological and topographical conditions, the pollutants may be
transported from one region to another, adversely affecting areas dozens
of kilometers away.
To fill the information gap and to help develop long-term strategies for
pollution prevention, preparations for a national air monitoring system,
including a national control center for data storage, analysis and
display, are now being advanced. The multi-million dollar system will be
based on individual air monitoring stations, regional control centers and
a national data processing center. Individual stations will include
stations for the monitoring of pollutant concentrations from stationary
sources; roadside stations for the monitoring of carbon monoxide and
nitrogen oxides emitted from mobile sources; and stations equipped with
facilities for the monitoring of airborne chemical substances. New
stations will be established in each region of the country in accordance
with defined scales of priority including population density, sources of
pollution, and necessity for data to be used in intermittent control
systems.
The program is conceived as a three-year plan, with first priority going
to the establishment of monitoring stations in the Tel Aviv metropolitan
area.
Vehicular Pollution
Without doubt, the major challenge in coming years will be to
significantly reduce pollution from vehicular sources. Despite a fourfold
increase in the number of motor vehicles over the past two decades, little
has been done to reduce emissions, either by legislation or by supervision
and inspection. Urban traffic constitutes an ever-growing menace to air
quality in Israel. Vehicle density has risen from 34 cars per thousand
population in 1954 to over 230 today, with the number of cars reaching 1.4
million. It is estimated that by the year 2000 the number of cars in
Israel will exceed 2 million. Transportation sources are responsible for a
lion's share of the country's carbon monoxide pollution and for a
substantial percentage of the concentrations of lead, hydrocarbons,
nitrogen oxides and particulates in the environment. With the exception of
lead, the concentrations of all these pollutants have risen dramatically
over the past decade.
Several steps have already been instituted to help abate the problem;
others are planned. All new cars imported into the country, beginning with
1995 models, must be equipped with catalytic converters a gradual switch
to unleaded gasoline is underway; and the lead content in regular gasoline
has been reduced from 0.42 grams per liter in 1987 to 0. 15% today (a
complete phaseout of leaded gasoline within ten years is anticipated). It
is estimated that by the year 2000, some 50% of Israel's motor vehicles
will be equipped with catalytic converters and by 2025, all the vehicles
will be so equipped. Other steps currently being undertaken or promoted
include the promulgation of regulations on the prevention of vehicular
emissions (both black smoke and carbon monoxide); increased roadside
supervision and enforcement of vehicle emissions standards in accordance
with European Union standards; restrictions on the use of private vehicles
(particularly restricted entry into city centers); encouragement of public
transport; information campaigns to increase public awareness; and
promotion of research on the epidemiology of respirable suspended
particles produced from diesel vehicles and sulfates.
Air Pollution Emissions
Energy production and consumption are the major sources of air pollution
in Israel in light of the fact that Israel's energy economy is currently
based on fossil fuels, especially oil and coal. The possibility of
importing natural gas for electricity production, as a partial substitute
for petroleum-based fuels in the future, should bring about substantial
improvements in air pollution from these sources. Recent estimates on the
countrywide quantities of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere from fuel
combustion reveal that with the exception of three pollutants -- sulfur
oxides. total particulate matter and lead -- emissions of all pollutants
have increased drastically since 1980.
In order to protect human health and to preserve the environment,
environmental policy must be based on a number of principles:
precautionary action, the "polluter pays principle" and cooperation
between environmental and economic bodies. In order to implement this
policy, national legislation is establishing targets for the minimization
of air pollutants, and emission standards are being set based on best
available technologies. It is anticipated that emission standards for the
following pollutants will be promulgated in 1996: particulate matter,
volatile organic compounds, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, gaseous
inorganic substances, hazardous inorganic particulate matter, and
carcinogenic substances.
A Look to the Future
The industrialization and motorization of Israel are carrying a heavy
toll. While Israel does not yet suffer from the severe air pollution
episodes which have been encountered in some urban areas worldwide, the
trend in recent years has not been encouraging. However, stringent new
standards, accompanied by tough enforcement, and the introduction of
technological improvements for the abatement of air pollution from both
stationary and mobile sources offer new hope. At the dawn of the new
century, air pollution trends may well reverse their direction.